Electrochemical apparatus with retractable electrode

ABSTRACT

Electrochemical apparatus and methods that support periodic, non-steady state, or discontinuous operation without suffering degradation of materials or loss of efficiency. The invention provides a means for positioning one or more electrodes into contact with electrolyte and means for retracting the one or more electrodes out of contact with the electrolyte. The means for positioning and means for retracting may be the same device or different devices. The means for positioning and means for retracting may be designed to provide automatic, passive, or fail-safe retraction of the electrode upon a given shutdown condition, such as a voltage of less than one Volt being applied between the first and second electrodes, expiration of a time period, an ozone concentration greater than a setpoint ozone concentration, contact pressure of less than 5 psig, and combinations thereof.

This nonprovisional application is a continuation-in-part application ofU.S. nonprovisional application Ser. No. 09/598,067 filed on Jun. 20,2000, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,365,026 and claims priority of U.S.provisional application No. 60/254,820 filed on Dec. 12, 2000, U.S.provisional application No. 60/261,101 filed on Jan. 10, 2001, U.S.provisional application No. 60/261,534 filed on Jan. 12, 2001, and U.S.provisional application No. 60/317,562 filed on Sep. 5, 2001.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

This invention relates to an electrochemical apparatus capable ofperiodic operation without suffering long-term loss of efficiency ordegradation of materials, in particular electrocatalyst layers orcoatings.

2. Background of the Related Art

Ozone is known to be a powerful oxidizing species. Numerous methods andapparatus have been used to generate ozone and use ozone. However, manypotential applications for the use of ozone do not require, or cannotutilize, a continuous stream of ozone gas or ozonated water.Unfortunately, the generation and use of ozone in discontinuous,unsteady-state, or batch modes of operation can be problematic for avariety of reasons. First, the high reactivity and rapid decompositionof ozone necessitate that the ozone be generated just prior toutilization. This dictates that ozone-generating capacity must closelymatch the peak rate of consumption. Second, the need to generate highlyconcentrated ozone favors electrochemical processes, most preferablyusing a lead dioxide anodic electrocatalyst.

While lead dioxide (PbO₂) is generally unstable in aqueous acidsolutions, the potential-pH equilibrium diagram for lead-water at 25° C.in FIG. 1 shows that maintaining a high positive electrode potential,with respect to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE), on the positivePbO₂ electrode in an electrochemical apparatus can stabilize leaddioxide. Therefore, lead dioxide instability in acid solutions is easilyavoided in continuous electrochemical processes since a relatively highelectrical potential is continuously maintained across the positive andnegative electrodes. Where the electrochemical process is needed onlyperiodically, it is possible to reduce the rate of the electrochemicalprocess while supplying a lower electrical potential across the positiveand negative electrodes, which stabilizes the lead dioxide bymaintaining a trickle of electrical current between the electrodes.Unfortunately, continuous electrochemical processes and continuouselectrical potentials are not practical in numerous applications, suchas residential or consumer products, since power outages and evendrained backup batteries can be experienced. Yet another possiblesolution is to use platinum metal as the anode electrocatalyst, but thepenalty for using platinum is a lower ozone yield and higher cost.

Central to the operation of any electrochemical cell is the occurrenceof oxidation and reduction reactions that produce or consume electrons.These reactions take place at electrode/solution interfaces, where theelectrodes must be good electronic conductors. In operation, a cell isconnected to an external load or to an external voltage source, andelectrons transfer electric charge between the anode and the cathodethrough the external circuit. To complete the electric circuit throughthe cell, an additional mechanism must exist for internal chargetransfer. Internal charge transfer is provided by one or moreelectrolytes, which support charge transfer by ionic conduction.Electrolytes must be poor electronic conductors to prevent internalshort-circuiting of the cell.

The simplest electrochemical cell consists of at least two electrodesand one or more electrolytes. The electrode at which the electronproducing oxidation reaction occurs is the anode. The electrode at whichan electron consuming reduction reaction occurs is called the cathode.The direction of the electron flow in the external circuit is alwaysfrom anode to cathode.

Electrochemical cells in which a chemical reaction is forced by addedAC/DC electrical energy are called electrolytic cells. Electrochemicalcells also include fuel cells, which are supplied with fuel to bringabout the generation of DC current, and batteries, such aszinc/manganese dioxide.

The electrolyte may be a liquid electrolyte (aqueous or organic solvent,with a dissolved salt, acid or base) or a solid electrolyte, such as apolymer-based ion exchange membrane that can be either a cation exchangemembrane (such as a proton exchange membrane, PEM) or an anion exchangemembrane. The membrane may also be a ceramic based membrane, such asytria-stabilized zirconia which is an O⁻² ionic conductor.

However, ozone (O₃) may be produced by an electrolytic process, whereinan electric current (normally D.C.) is impressed across electrodesimmersed in an electrolyte. The electrolyte includes water thatdissociates into its respective elemental species, O₂ and H₂. Undersuitable conditions, the oxygen is also evolved as the O₃ species. Theevolution of oxygen and ozone at the anode may be represented as:2H₂O=>O₂+4H⁺+4e ⁻3H₂O=>O₃+6H⁺+6e ⁻

Utilization of high overpotentials, such as anode potentials greaterthan 1.57 Volts, and certain electrocatalyst materials enhance ozoneformation at the expense of oxygen evolution. The water oxidationreactions yield protons and electrons which are recombined at thecathode. Electrons are conducted to the cathode via the externalelectronic circuit. The protons are carried through a solid electrolyte,such as a proton exchange membrane (PEM).

The cathodic reactions may utilize hydrogen formation:2H⁺+2e ⁻=>H₂or involve the reduction of oxygen as follows:O₂+4H⁺+4e ⁻=>2H₂OO₂+2H⁺+2e ⁻=>H₂O₂

Specialized gas diffusion electrodes are required for the oxygenreduction reaction to occur efficiently. The presence of oxygen at thecathode suppresses the hydrogen formation reaction. Furthermore, theoxygen reactions are thermodynamically favored over hydrogen formation.In this manner, the reduction of oxygen to either water or hydrogenperoxide reduces the overall cell voltage below that required to evolvehydrogen.

Therefore, there is a need for an electrochemical apparatus and methodsthat support periodic, non-steady state, or discontinuous operationwithout suffering degradation of materials, including electrocatalysts,or loss of efficiency. It would be desirable if the apparatus andmethods did not require operator attention to verify the status of thepower supply. It would also be desirable if the apparatus and methodssupport large amounts of repetitive use at various operating and standbydurations and frequencies.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides an electrochemical apparatus comprisingan electrochemical cell having first and second electrodes andelectrolyte, such as an ion exchange membrane, disposed between thefirst and second electrodes, a power source for applying a voltagebetween the first and second electrodes, and means for automaticallyretracting one or more of the first and second electrodes out of contactwith the electrolyte. Optionally, the means for automatically retractingmay be passive, and the passive means for repetitively retracting may bea stored energy device. A stored energy device may be selected from aspring, gravity, hydraulic accumulator, pneumatic accumulator, orcombinations thereof.

The invention is well suited for use with one or more of the first andsecond electrodes includes material, such as lead dioxide, that isunstable or deactivates in the presence of the electrolyte withoutapplying a voltage. The invention is characterized in that the leaddioxide maintains its activity during repetitive cycling of the powersource.

The electrochemical apparatus may further comprise a pump for deliveringwater to the electrochemical cell, wherein the means for retracting is ahydraulic actuator in fluid communication with the water. Preferably,the electrolyte, such as an ion exchange membrane, and one of theelectrodes, most preferably the cathode, are stationary. Where alead-dioxide electrocatalyst is used, it may be desirable to include alead removal device in fluid communication with the electrochemicalcell, wherein the lead removal device contains a material known to bindor adsorb lead ions, particulates or colloidal species. Such leadremoval material may be selected from a zeolite, alumina, silica, ormixtures thereof, and may be in powdered or granulated form.

In a preferred embodiment, the one or more of the first and secondelectrodes are retracted out of contact with the electrolyte when novoltage is being applied between the first and second electrodes. Themeans for retracting the one or more electrodes may also include a guidemember to align the electrodes.

The electrochemical apparatus preferably also has a means forpositioning the first and second electrodes in contact with theelectrolyte. Preferably, the electrolyte is an ion exchange membrane,the first electrode is coupled to the means for positioning, and thefirst electrode has an electrocatalyst formed only on surfaces of thefirst electrode that are disposed to make contact with the ion exchangemembrane. In one embodiment, the second electrode is stationary and theion exchange membrane is secured onto the second electrode.

Exemplary means for positioning are selected from a hydraulic actuator,a pneumatic actuator, manual mechanical means, piezo-electric means,electric motor means, or combinations thereof, and preferably provide acompressive force against the ion exchange membrane generally between 5and 100 psig, most preferably greater than 15 psig. The apparatus maybedesigned so that the means for retracting overcomes the means forpositioning when the power source is off, or so that the means forpositioning overcomes the means for retracting when the power source ison.

The present invention also provides a method of operating anelectrochemical cell having first and second electrodes and electrolytedisposed between the first and second electrodes, comprisingautomatically separating one or more of the first and second electrodesfrom the electrolyte upon one or more standby conditions. The one ormore standby conditions may be selected from, but not limited to, avoltage of less than one Volt being applied between the first and secondelectrodes, expiration of a time period, an ozone concentration greaterthan a setpoint ozone concentration, contact pressure of less than 10psig, or combinations thereof. Furthermore, the method may includeautomatically positioning the one or more of the first and secondelectrodes into contact with the electrolyte upon one or more productionconditions. The one or more production conditions may be selected from avoltage greater than one Volt being applied between the first and secondelectrodes, expiration of a time period, an ozone concentration lessthan a setpoint ozone concentration, contact pressure greater than 10psig, or combinations thereof.

The preferred electrolyte is a polymer electrolyte membrane, and thestep of automatically positioning preferably comprises compressing theone or more of the first and second electrodes against the polymerelectrolyte membrane with a compressive force between 5 and 100 psig,most preferably between 25 and 70 psig. While the method steps disclosedherein should generally not be limited to taking the steps in a givenorder, it is important when using a lead dioxide electrocatalyst, toapply a voltage between the first and second electrodes beforepositioning the one or more of the first and second electrodes intocontact with the electrolyte upon one or more production conditions.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

So that the above recited features and advantages of the presentinvention can be understood in detail, a more particular description ofthe invention, briefly summarized above, may be had by reference to theembodiments thereof that are illustrated in the appended drawings. It isto be noted, however, that the appended drawings illustrate only typicalembodiments of this invention and are therefore not to be consideredlimiting of its scope, for the invention may admit to other equallyeffective embodiments.

FIG. 1 is a potential-pH equilibrium diagram for the system oflead-water at 25° C.

FIG. 2 is a single electrochemical cell capable of positioningelectrodes into compressed contact with an ion exchange membrane.

FIG. 3 is an alternative single electrochemical cell having a wavespring to retract an electrode away from the ion exchange membrane whenthere is no compression.

FIG. 4A is an electrochemical cell stack having a bipolar plate betweentwo cells of FIG. 3.

FIG. 4B is an electrochemical cell stack having two cells with a commoncathode.

FIG. 5A is a schematic side view of an electrochemical cell having ananode coupled to a push rod, wherein an electrical solenoid actuatorwith a return spring controls the positioning of the push rod.

FIG. 5B is a schematic side view of the electrochemical cell of FIG. 5Ahaving a separate deionized water reservoir.

FIG. 5C is a schematic side view of the electrochemical cell of FIG. 5Barranged to withdraw the electrode out of contact with a liquidelectrolyte.

FIGS. 6A-F illustrate exemplary means capable of actuating orpositioning an electrode to make contact with an electrolyte, the meansincluding an electrical solenoid with spring retraction (6A), a cam withspring retraction (6B), a hydraulic or pneumatic actuator (6C), a leadscrew (6D), rack and pinion (6E), and piezo-electric actuator (6F),respectively.

FIGS. 7A-B illustrate exemplary means for latching a push rod to securean electrode in contact with the PEM during the application ofelectricity.

FIG. 8 is a schematic side view of an experimental electrochemical cellsetup having an adjustable load and load cell for monitoring the celloperation as a function of compression force between the electrode andthe PEM.

FIG. 9 is a schematic side view of an electrochemical apparatus having awater reservoir and a diaphragm allowing sealed movement of the pushrod.

FIG. 10A is a schematic side view of an alternative electrochemicalapparatus having a hydraulically actuated anode.

FIG. 10B is a schematic side view of two electrochemical cells/apparatusaccording to FIG. 10A, but having a common cathode therebetween.

FIG. 11 is a schematic side view of an alternative electrochemicalapparatus having a process water reservoir and a pump that deliversprocess water to the electrochemical cell as well as to an integralhydraulic actuator.

FIG. 12 is a schematic side view of the electrochemical apparatus ofFIG. 11 having the carbon filter and deionization bed relocated to thepump inlet.

FIGS. 13A-C are schematic views of deionization beds arranged to displaya color change that indicates the extent to which the beds are spent.

FIG. 14 is a schematic side view of an electrochemical apparatus havinga separate deionized water reservoir in fluid communication with theanode.

FIGS. 15A-D are graphs of percent light absorption as a function of timein seconds for electrochemical cells built according to FIG. 7 andoperated over many repetitive cycles.

FIG. 16 is a graph of cell voltage as a function of pressure in psi forthe electrochemical cell of FIG. 8.

FIGS. 17A-B are graphs of ozone current efficient in percent as afunction of time of a period in which the ozone generator is cycled onand off.

FIGS. 18A-C are perspective views of retractable electrodes coupled to ashaft, wherein the electrode has been modified to improve the currentdistribution/collection across the face of the electrode.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides electrochemical apparatus and methodsthat support periodic, non-steady state, or discontinuous operationwithout suffering degradation of materials, including electrocatalysts,or loss of efficiency. The apparatus and methods do not require operatorattention to verify that an electrical potential across the positive andnegative electrodes, otherwise referred to as a cell voltage, iscontinuously applied to the cell. The apparatus and methods supportlarge amounts of repetitive “on”/“off” cycles at various operating andstandby durations and frequencies.

The basic structural unit of the electrochemical apparatus is anelectrochemical cell. Thus, an electrochemical apparatus can consist ofa single electrochemical cell or a plurality of electrochemical cells,either stacked in series in a bipolar filter press configuration orstacked in series and electrically connected in a monopolar format. Thestructural elements of an electrochemical cell consist of an anode, orpositive electrode, separated from a cathode, or negative electrode, byan ionically conducting electrolyte. If the electrolyte is a liquid, amicroporous separator may also be placed between the anode and cathode.The positive and negative electrodes are held spaced apart from eachother and contained, along with the electrolyte, in a container havingwalls which provide support and containment for the elements identified.The container also may have a plurality of input and output portsassociated with the supply of reactants and withdrawal of products fromboth the anodic region of the container as well as the cathodic regionof the container.

The anodic and cathodic electrodes may consist of a substrate materialon which is coated a suitable electrocatalyst layer. However, thesubstrate material may also function as the electrocatalyst itself. Formany electrochemical processes, it is most suitable that theelectronically conducting anodic and cathodic electrode substratesshould be porous to allow access of liquid or gaseous reactants to theelectrocatalyst/electrolyte interface or withdrawal of liquid or gaseousproducts from the electrocatalyst/electrolyte interface.

Suitable anodic electrode substrates that are capable of withstandinghigh positive electrode potentials, aggressive electrolytes(concentrated aqueous mineral acids and mineral bases), and highlyoxidizing environments (ozone evolution) include porous titanium, poroustitanium suboxides (such as that produced by Atraverda Limited under thetrademark “EBONEX”), porous platinum, porous tungsten, porous tantalum,porous hafnium, porous niobium, porous zirconium, and combinationsthereof. The porous anodic substrates could be in the form of sinteredpowders or particles, compressed and sintered, or just compressedrandomly oriented fibers, woven or non-woven cloth or mesh, screens,felt materials, highly perforated metal sheets, or metal sheets withmicroetched holes. In the case of electrochemical ozone evolution,suitable anodic electrocatalyst layers include α-lead dioxide, β-leaddioxide, boron-doped diamond, platinum-tungsten alloys or mixtures,glassy carbon, fluorinated graphite, and platinum.

Suitable cathodic electrode substrates or suitable cathodic electrodebacking materials include porous metals selected from stainless steels(in particular, 304 stainless steel and 316 stainless steel), nickel,nickel-chromium alloys, copper, titanium, titanium suboxides, tantalum,hafnium, niobium and zirconium. These cathodic substrates should beporous to allow the supply of liquid or gaseous reactants to thecathodic electrocatalyst/electrolyte interface or withdrawal of liquidor gaseous products from the cathodic electrocatalyst/electrolyteinterface. Suitable porous cathodic substrates include sintered powdersor particles, compressed and sintered or just compressed randomlyoriented fibers, woven or non-woven cloth or mesh, screens, felts,highly perforated metal sheets, or metal sheets with microetched holes.In the case of electrochemical evolution of ozone, a most suitablecathodic electrode substrate or electrode backing material can bederived from porous stainless steel materials. Preferred cathodicelectrocatalyst layers include platinum, palladium, gold, iridium,nickel, pyrolyzed carbon-supported cobalt phthalocyanine, graphite orcarbon materials, ruthenium oxide, iridium oxide, ruthenium/iridiumoxide, ruthenium/iridium/titanium oxide, carbon-supported platinum,carbon-supported palladium, and mixtures thereof.

Alternatively, the cathode may be a gas diffusion cathode, for examplecomprising a polytetrafluoroethylene-bonded, semi-hydrophobic catalystlayer supported on a hydrophobic gas diffusion layer. In one embodimentof the present invention, the catalyst layer is comprised of a protonexchange polymer, polytetrafluoroethylene polymer and an electrocatalystselected from platinum, palladium, gold, iridium, nickel, pyrolyzedcarbon-supported cobalt phthalocyanine, graphite or carbon materials,ruthenium oxide, iridium oxide, ruthenium/iridium oxide,ruthenium/iridium/titanium oxide, carbon-supported platinum,carbon-supported palladium, and mixtures thereof. The gas diffusionlayer has a carbon cloth or carbon paper fiber impregnated with asintered mass derived from fine carbon powder and apolytetrafluoroethylene emulsion. This and other gas diffusion cathodesare suitable for air depolarization of the cathode, particularly inregard to open cathodes. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,770,033 and 5,972,196 areincorporated by reference herein.

Electrolytes that are particularly useful in electrochemical cellscomprise aqueous solutions of mineral acids, aqueous solutions of bases,aqueous solutions of salts, or aqueous solutions of salts combined witheither acids or bases. For the electrochemical production of ozone in anelectrolytic cell, it is particularly advantageous to use an electrolyteconsisting of water and the acids or salts of fluoroanions dissolvedtherein. The fluoroanion electrolytes are capable of producing highyields of ozone. Fluoroanions and in particular the hexafluoro-anions,are especially preferred. Aqueous fluoroanion-containing electrolytesare described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,316,782, which patent is incorporatedby reference herein.

A particular class of electrolytes suitable for use in accordance withthis invention may be any number of ion exchange polymers includingpolymers with cation exchange groups that are preferably selected fromthe group consisting of sulfonate, carboxylate, phosphonate, imide,sulfonimide, and sulfonamide groups. Various known cation exchangepolymers can be used including polymers and co-polymers oftrifluoroethylene, tetrafluoroethylene, styrene-divinylbenzene, α-, β₁-,β₂-trifluorostyrene, etc., in which cation exchange groups have beenintroduced. Polymeric electrolytes for use in accordance with thepresent invention are preferably highly fluorinated ion-exchangepolymers having sulfonate ion exchange groups. “Highly fluoroinated”means that at least 90% of the total number of univalent atoms in thepolymer are fluorine atoms. Most preferably, the polymer isperfluorinated sulfonic acid. Suitable solid polymer electrolytes basedon ion exchange polymers are described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,110,333 and6,042,958, which patents are incorporated by reference herein. Solidpolymer electrolytes based on perfluorinated cation exchange polymersare most suitable for electrochemical ozone evolution. This is becauseonly water, free of dissolved ionic species or suspended inorganic ororganic materials, needs to be added to an electrochemical cell. Thisavoids the degradation of electrochemical cell components by aggressiveelectrolytes and the entrainment of liquid electrolytes in evolvedgaseous ozone.

It is particularly preferred to utilize an ion exchange polymer that isreinforced to improve the integrity and durability of the membrane. Inparticular, ultra-thin composite membranes below 50 μm in thickness andcomprising proton exchange polymers incorporated into an expanded porouspolytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) membrane are suitable for use as thepolymer electrolyte in the present invention. Such expandedPTFE-reinforced membranes are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,547,551assigned to W.L. Gore & Associates Inc., which patent is herebyincorporated by reference. Another suitable membrane includes a poroussubstrate of randomly orientated individual fibres and an ion conductingpolymer embedded within the porous substrate. This individual fiberreinforced membrane is described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,042,958, whichpatent is hereby incorporated by reference. Other reinforced membranesthat are currently available or that will be developed in the future mayalso be suitable for use in accordance with the invention.

The proton exchange membrane placed between the anode and cathode ismade of a polymer material having sulfonate functional groups containedon a fluorinated carbon backbone. Two such materials include a “NAFION”PEM having an equivalent weight of 1100 grams and a Dow experimental PEM(XUS-13204.20) having an equivalent weight of 800 grams. While “NAFION”105, 115 and 117 will each operate satisfactorily in the presentinvention, “NAFION” 117 is the preferred “NAFION” product. However, itis anticipated that a sulfonated polymer having a nonfluorinated carbonbackbone would be operable according to the present invention. Such apolymer might include polystyrene sulfonate. Additionally, such amaterial might be coated with a fluorinated material to increase itsresistance to chemical attack. It is also anticipated that a protonexchange membrane made of a polymer material having carboxylatefunctional groups attached to a fluorinated carbon backbone would beoperable according to the present invention. Examples include thoseavailable from Tokuyama Soda Company under the trademark “NEOSEPT-F”,Asahi Glass Company under the trademark “FLEMION”, Asahi ChemicalIndustry Company under the trademark “ACIPLEX-S” and Tosoh Corporationunder the trademark “TOSFLEX IE-SA48.” Further, polymeric systems basedon: perfluoro bis-sulfonimides (CF₃—[CF₂SO₂NHSO₂CF₂]_(n)—CF₃); perfluorophosphonic acids, and the corresponding carbocation acids would functionsatisfactorily as proton exchange membranes according to the presentinvention. The Dow experimental PEM gives much superior performance thanthe “NAFION” PEM materials, which are manufactured by duPont. However,“NAFION” has been determined to be better for impregnating platinumelectrodes.

A PEM-impregnated gas diffusion electrode can be hot-pressed onto atleast one side of a purified proton exchange membrane, using a Carverhot press, to produce a membrane and electrode (M&E) assembly. Thehot-pressing procedure involves placing a sandwich structure, consistingof the PEM and a PEM-impregnated gas diffusion electrode at one or bothsides of the PEM, between the platens of the press at approximately 100psi, where the platens having been previously heated to 100 degrees C.After the temperature of the platens has been raised to within apreselected range of between 125 degrees C. and 230 degrees C., apreselected pressure in the range 1,000 psi to 50,000 psi is applied tothe membrane and electrode assembly for a period of time varying from 15seconds to 150 seconds. The hot pressed M&E's should be immediatelyremoved from the hot press.

Preferred conditions for the preparation of M&E assemblies were found toconsist of a hot press temperature of 160 degrees C., a hot pressingtime of 90 seconds and a hot press pressure in the range 3,000 psi to14,000 psi.

Lead dioxide anodes for use in the electrolytic cells of the inventionmay be prepared by anodic deposition. The choice of anodic substrates onwhich lead dioxide is deposited are limited since most metals dissolvewhen deposition is attempted. However, the valve metals, such astitanium, titanium suboxides (such as that produced by Atraverda Limitedunder the trademark “EBONEX”), platinum, tungsten, tantalum, niobium andhafnium are suitable as substrates for the anodes. When titanium,tungsten, niobium, hafnium or tantalum are utilized as substratematerials, they are first platinized to eliminate passivation problemssometimes encountered with the uncoated substrates. The platinizingprocess may include a predeposition chemical etch of the substratematerial.

Carbon in the form of graphite may be used as a substrate; however, leaddioxide adherence is a particular problem if the carbon has not beenthoroughly degassed. The carbon is degassed by boiling in water for sometime followed by vacuum drying over a period of days. When degassed,adherence is greatly improved with respect to thermal stress. Vitreousor glassy carbon does not appear to have the adherence problem.

Platinum is the most convenient substrate material to work with, givesthe most uniform deposits, and does not present any additional problems.Platinum is therefore typically the most suitable substrate material forlead dioxide anodes. However, its high cost may make other previouslymentioned substrate materials more practical for commercial use.

In any event, lead dioxide is plated onto substrates in a well knownplating bath comprising essentially lead nitrate, sodium perchlorate,copper nitrate, and a small amount of sodium fluoride and water. Thesubstrate material is set up as the anode in a plating bath with a pHmaintained between 2 and 4. Current densities of between 10 and 400milliamperes per square centimeter give bright, smooth and adherent leaddioxide deposits. Bath temperature is maintained at temperature in therange between 20 degrees C. and 70 degrees C. at all times duringdeposition. The deposition may be carried out with vigorous stirring ofthe electrolyte and rapid mechanical vibration of the anode to giveconsistently fine granular deposits free from pinholes or nodules. Asurface active agent may be added to the plating solution to reduce thelikelihood of gas bubbles sticking to the anode surface.

A particularly suitable anodic electrode substrate and anodicelectrocatalyst for the electrochemical evolution of ozone, using eitheraqueous electrolytes or solid polymer electrolytes based on cationexchange polymers, is porous titanium coated with a layer of β-leaddioxide. To enhance the adhesion of the β-lead dioxide layer on theporous titanium substrate it has been found that the porous titaniumsubstrate should be suitably cleaned and chemically etched followed bythe deposition of a thin layer, or a flash coating, of metallic platinumon the porous titanium substrate immediately prior to theelectrodeposition of the β-lead dioxide electrocatalyst layer. However,in experimental work carried out by the inventors, it was found that thenature of the porous titanium substrate has a remarkable effect on theelectrochemical ozone generation efficiency and the lifetime of anelectrochemical cell for ozone evolution when a solid polymerelectrolyte based on a cation exchange polymer membrane, such asperfluorosulfonic acid, is used as the electrolyte.

The Retractable Electrode

The invention provides a means for positioning one or more electrodesinto contact with electrolyte and means for retracting the one or moreelectrodes out of contact with the electrolyte. In a single cellapparatus, it is preferred to have only one mobile electrode, i.e., onepositionable and retractable electrode, and one stationary electrode.

The means for positioning and means for retracting may be the samedevice or different devices. It is preferred that the means forpositioning/retracting is designed to retract upon a given shutdowncondition, such as a voltage of less than one Volt being applied betweenthe first and second electrodes, expiration of a time period, an ozoneconcentration greater than a setpoint ozone concentration, contactpressure of less than 5 psig, and combinations thereof. Alternatively,the means for positioning/retracting may be designed to position the oneor more electrodes into contact with the electrolyte upon a givenproduction condition, such as a voltage greater than one Volt beingapplied between the first and second electrodes, expiration of a timeperiod, an ozone concentration less than a setpoint ozone concentration,contact pressure greater than 5 psig, and combinations thereof.

Using a lead dioxide anodic electrocatalyst, it is critically importantto prevent the lead dioxide from contacting the acidic environment ofthe electrolyte while the electrical potential is off. In accordancewith the present invention, there are three suitable modes of startupand shutdown. First, the anode must be retracted prior to removing theapplied potential, and a suitable potential must be applied prior tocontacting the anode to the electrolyte. For example, the voltage may beapplied for 30 seconds before the anode initiates contact with theelectrolyte and/or applied for 30 seconds following the anode beingretracted out of contact with the electrolyte. Second, the voltage maybe turned off at the same time as the anode and electrolyte are beingseparated. Third, the applied electrical potential maybe kept “on”,wherein the contacting and retracting of the anode from the electrolytemay act as a switch for turning the current “on” and “off”.

In accordance with the invention, it is also useful to provide specialstartup and shutdown procedures that avoid abrupt changes in the powerapplied. Accordingly, the procedure may include gradual ramping orincrementally stepping the power between a present value and a targetvalue. Such gradual or incremental increases or decreases in power maybe utilized each time the cell is cycled “on” and “off”. For instance,the current density through the cell may be stepped several times from0.15 Amps per square centimeter to eventually arrive at a final currentof 3 Amps per square centimeter. Furthermore, a special “initialstartup” profile maybe followed during the cell's first use in order toaccommodate certain one-time changes in cell conditions from theirshipment and storage condition to a fully operational condition, such asthe wetting of the membrane that must occur during a first use. In apreferred embodiment, the power may be adjusted so that the cell voltageremains within a given range of voltages most preferably between 3 voltsand 8 volts.

While the means for positioning and the means for retracting may beactive, passive or a combination of active and passive, it is preferredthat the means for retracting is passive and the means for positioningis active. The term “active”, as used herein, means that a continuousapplication of an outside force (electrical, hydraulic, pneumatic,piezoelectric) is necessary to secure the condition or position of thedevice. For example, an electrical solenoid is an active device becausea push rod connected to the solenoid is urged to a desired conditiononly while electrical power is maintained to the solenoid. The term“passive”, as used herein, means that the condition or position of thedevice will be maintained unless acted upon by an outside force. Forexample, a wave spring or coil spring is a passive device because a pushrod connected to the spring is urged to a desired condition unless thespring is overcome by an opposite outside force. The term “fail-safe”,as used herein, refers to the condition or position that a device takesupon a particular failure, such as a loss of electricity.

In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the means for retracting ispassive. Passive retraction is accomplished by providing a mechanicalstored energy device that maintains a bias on the actuated electrodetoward the retracted condition or position, so that retraction occursautomatically upon releasing the actuation force. The mechanical storedenergy device may be a spring, a pressurized fluid container, weight,and combinations thereof. In this manner, failure or shutdown of theelectrochemical apparatus causes retraction of the electrode.

While positioning and retracting the one or more electrodes aregenerally directly opposite movements controlled by a guide member, theone or more electrodes may follow any of a number of paths. While thepreferred path is a linear path having a guide member that allows onlytranslational movement of the one or more electrodes, it also possibleto use an arcuate path having a guide member that allows only hingedmovement of the one or more electrodes. Regardless of the exactdirection of the path or the type of guide member involved, it isimportant that the one or more electrodes be positioned to maintainoperation of the entire active area of the cell, namely maintain theelectrode in fall face contact with the PEM and generally opposite theactive area of any opposing electrodes.

The guide member(s) may be provided in various forms, including thosethat guide the push rod and those that guide the electrode itself.Furthermore, the guides may be disposed through or around the electrodeor push rod, or consist only of a rigid connection with the positioningmeans. In addition to providing alignment of the electrodes and PEM, itis preferred that the guide member limit rotational and lateral movementof the electrode relative to the face of the PEM. Rotational and lateralmovement are undesirable not only because of potential physical damageto the PEM or electrocatalyst, but also because consistent realignmentof the electrocatalyst and PEM from one operating cycle to the nextallow any physical variation in the electrocatalyst and PEM surfaces toconform to each other as they do in a traditional cell where theelectrocatalyst and PEM are in constant compression. Consistentre-alignment of the electrocatalyst coated substrate and PEM from oneoperating cycle to the next is preferred in accordance with the presentinvention.

The electrolyte used in the electrochemical apparatus of the presentinvention may be either a liquid electrolyte or a solid electrolyte(otherwise referred to as an ion exchange membrane), such as a PEM. Ionexchange membranes are preferred, because liquid electrolytes must bemaintained separate from the process water. While an electrochemicalcell will function with the electrodes merely contacting the membrane,it is preferred to support the membrane on one of the electrodes. Thissupport may include securing the membrane to be stationary with respectto one of the electrodes or directly bonding or casting the membraneonto one of the electrodes. An example of a suitable bonding procedureincludes heating a perfluorinated sulfonic acid polymer membrane toabout 160° C. under a pressure of up to 300 psi, preferably for about 90seconds. When using a lead dioxide anodic electrocatalyst, the ionexchange membrane is secured to the cathode.

The cathode may be open to the air and have no direct supply of water.Such a cathode may be suitable for air depolarization as well asevaporative disposal of both the electroosmotic water and any productwater. However, since the membrane must be kept wet or moist in order tobe ionically conducting, a source of water must be provided to themembrane. Optionally, water may be provided from the anode side, eitheras liquid water or water vapor. Further, water may be provided from thecathode side for back diffusion into the membrane, either as liquidwater (no air depolarization) or water vapor. Even further, water may beprovided to an edge or other exposed area of the membrane so as to“wick” or absorb water into the membrane. Particularly in applicationswhere water of sufficient quality is scarce, it is anticipated that thehydration state of the membrane may be controlled or limited to makemore efficient use of water while accepting a reduction in the ionicconductivity of the membrane. Where the amount of water being suppliedto the membrane is limited, electroosmotic water and product water atthe cathode will be absorbed (back diffused) into the membrane.

While much of the description and drawings of the present inventionrefer to a single cell, the invention encompasses multiple cellarrangements, including both stacks of cells and side-by-side arrays ofcells. It should be recognized that both stacks and side-by-side arrayscan be electronically coupled in either a parallel or series circuitdepending upon the arrangement of electronic conductors and insulators.However, the configuration of a plurality of cells in a side-by-sidearray may include a plurality of cells in the same plane, a plurality ofcells in two or more parallel planes, and a plurality of cells along acurvilinear surface. The commonly owned U.S. patent application Ser. No.09/598,067 is incorporated by reference herein.

The electrolytic cells may generate gas at any concentration, but thegas concentration preferably comprises between about 1% and about 18% byweight ozone in oxygen. Such electrolytic cells are described in U.S.Pat. No. 5,460,705 which description is incorporated by referenceherein. A fully passive electrolytic cell for producing ozone is mostpreferred for small scale point-of-use applications such as point-of-usewater treatment or built into equipment requiring ozone for sterilizing,disinfecting, decontaminating, washing, etc. The limited number ofmoving parts reduces the initial cost of the device and also reduces thepotential for failure and maintenance requirements of the device.

In the description of the Figures that follow, like numerals may be usedto refer to like elements among the Figures. The use of like numeralsfor like elements means that the like elements have the same generalname and function, but like elements may have more or fewer features inone Figure than the same element in another Figure. The use of likenumerals is intended to more clearly describe the common elements of theembodiments as they appear from Figure to Figure, and a particular useof like numerals should not be taken as limiting the scope of theinvention to specific features unless the description expressly statessuch limitations.

FIG. 2 is an exploded view of a single electrochemical cell 10 capableof positioning two electrodes into compressed contact with an ionexchange membrane. The cell 10 comprises an electronically conductinganode substrate 12 having an anodic electrocatalyst 14 formed on thesurface facing the PEM 16. However, the anode substrate may alsofunction as both substrate and electrocatalyst. An electronicallyconducting cathode substrate 18 has a cathodic electrocatalyst 20 formedon the surface facing the PEM 16. However, the cathode substrate mayalso function as both substrate and electrocatalyst. The anode substrate12, cathode substrate 18 and PEM 16 are secured together by anelectrically nonconducting bolt 22 and nut 24. A power supply 26 has apositive terminal 28 and a negative terminal 29 placed in electroniccommunication with the anode substrate 12 and cathode substrate 18 viaelectronic conductors, respectively. The power supply applies thenecessary electrical potential (Volts) to drive the electrochemicalprocess. In one embodiment of the invention, the cell 10 is submersed inwater so that water is provided to and electrolyzed at the anodicelectrocatalyst to form a mixture of ozone/oxygen gas and water isprovided directly or indirectly to the PEM to support protonconductivity. Hydrogen gas or other cathodic product(s) is formed at thecathodic electrocatalyst.

The anode and cathode substrates are electronically conducting metal orceramic particles or fibers that yield a porous substrate usually in theform of a disc, square or rectangle. Exemplary substrates include, butare not limited to, woven felt, sintered metal, metal screens, metalmeshes, fabrics and the like.

FIG. 3 is an exploded view of an alternative single electrochemical cell30 having a separation spring 32, such as a wave spring or wavy washer,to retract the anode substrate/electrocatalyst 12, 14 away from the ionexchange membrane 16 when the compression is relaxed, such as when thenut 24 is threaded away from the head of the bolt 22. The anodesubstrate 12 preferably has a recess 34 to receive the compressed wavespring during operation and to maintain alignment (centering) of thewave spring with the anode substrate 12 so that the substrate 12 will bepushed away from contact with the PEM 16. In applications where it isimportant to minimize the retraction distance, it is beneficial toretract the substrate 12 an equal distance at all points over thesubstrate surface, such as with a substantially translational movement.

While the retraction or separation distance may be any distance at whichthe one or more electrodes are moved out of contact with the PEM, acontrolled translational retraction can allow very small retractiondistances dependent upon the dimensional tolerances of the actuator andguide member, typically on the order of 1-5 millimeters, but certainlyretractions of more than 5 millimeters and less than 1 millimeter arepossible. While the present invention does not reside in any particularseparation distance, reference to a separation of “up to” a certaindistance must avoid contact between the separated components, but may beas close as possible given dimensional tolerances of the relevant parts.

The term “retraction”, as used herein, means movement that causesseparation of components. The term “actuation”, as use herein, meansmovement that causes contact between components. Neither “retraction”nor “actuation” should be taken to imply whether a pushing or pullingforce is used to accomplish the separating or contacting movement unlesssuch pushing or pulling is expressly stated. In general, where theFigures show retraction accomplished by a pushing force, it should berecognized that a pulling force could be easily adapted to accomplishthe same movement. However, where springs are involved, as shown innumerous Figures herein, it is preferred, but not required, that thesprings be placed in compression rather than tension.

FIG. 4A is an exploded view of an electrochemical cell stack 40 having abipolar plate 42 disposed between two cells, such as a pair of cells 30from FIG. 3. In the manner shown, even a stack of cells can include apassive retraction mechanism (for example, one wave spring 32 per cell)and an active actuation mechanism (for example, a bolt 22/nut 24combination). As shown in FIGS. 2-4, the bolt 22 also serves thefunction of a guide member that maintains alignment of the components.

FIG. 4B is an electrochemical cell stack 41 having two cells 43 with acommon cathode substrate 18 coupled to the negative terminal of a powersource. The two cells 43 are mirror images, but in other respects thestack 41 is the same as the stack 40 of FIG. 4A. It is also possible tooperate a cell having a common anode and two cathodes.

FIG. 5A is a schematic side view of an electrochemical apparatus 90having an anode substrate 12/electrocatalyst 14 coupled to a push rod48, wherein the positioning of the push rod is controlled by anelectrical solenoid actuator 92 to compress the anode substrate12/electrocatalyst 14 against the PEM 16 and a return spring 46 toretract the anode. The cathode substrate 18/cathodic electrocatalyst20/PEM 16 assembly as well as the solenoid actuator 92 are secured in afixed relationship, such as by securing to a common housing 96, so thatmovement of the anode is achieved relative to the cathode/PEM simply byactivating the actuator. The cell is shown submersed in water 98 whilethe solenoid 92 is positioned out of the water. As used in the examplesbelow, a controller 94 is connected in the electronic circuit to providepower to the solenoid 92. The controller 94 may operate the apparatus 90in any number of ways based on a variety of conditions, such as a simpletimer specifying the “on” duration and frequency.

FIG. 5B is a schematic side view of the electrochemical apparatus 90 ofFIG. 7A having a separate deionized water reservoir 91 that ispreferably prepackaged deionized water. The water reservoir 91 isprovided in fluid communication with the housing 96 through a conduit93. The water reservoir 91 preferably contains deionized water toprovide high quality water to the apparatus and to eliminate the need toincorporate filtration and deionization devices into the apparatus. Thewater level in the reservoir 91 is controlled within certain limits,since the reservoir 91 will add water to the housing 96 whenever thewater level in the housing 96 falls below the level of the inlet conduit93 to allow a gas bubble to pass into the housing 91. The headspace 95above the water level allows phase separation of the ozone/oxygen gasfrom the water 98 so that the ozone/oxygen gas can then pass through theozone output 97, preferably having a valve (not shown) to regulate thewithdrawal of gas and/or maintain a backpressure.

FIG. 5C is a schematic side view of the electrochemical apparatus 90 ofFIG. 5B arranged to withdraw the electrode 12 out of contact with aliquid electrolyte 101. The apparatus is the same as in FIG. 5B exceptthat the ion exchange membrane 16 has been replaced by a liquidelectrolyte 101 and that the conduit 93 communicates with the housing 96to maintain the electrolyte level over the cathode 18, yet low enoughthat the anode 12 can be retracted out of contact with the electrolyte.

FIGS. 6A-F illustrate exemplary means capable of actuating orpositioning an electrode to make contact with electrolyte, the means forpositioning including: an electrical solenoid 44 for actuating the pushrod 48 upon throwing a switch or receiving a command from a controller50 in combination with a spring 46 for passively retracting the push rod(FIG. 6A); a cam 52 aligned to actuate the push rod 48 having a spring46 disposed between a retainer 54 and a collar 56 for providing passiveretraction of the push rod (FIG. 6B); a hydraulic or pneumatic actuator58 has a push rod 48 coupled to a piston 64, where the actuator 58includes a motive fluid feed conduit 60 for actuating and a motive fluidreturn conduit 62 for retracting the piston 64/push rod 48 (FIG. 6C); alead screw 68 push rod 48 and a lead screw motor 66 connected to powersource 26 through manual switches or an electronic controller 69 (FIG.6D); a rack 70/push rod 48 and pinion 72 (FIG. 6E, motor/power sourcenot shown); and a piezo-electric actuator 74 coupled to the push rod 48and activated by power source 26 through switch 50 (FIG. 6F). Otheractuating or positioning devices and variations of the foregoing devicesare deemed to be within the scope of the present invention.

FIGS. 7A-B are schematic diagrams of exemplary devices for latching thepush rod 48 in a position that secures an electrode (not shown) incontact with the PEM during the application of electricity. In FIG. 7A,the push rod 48 includes a latching notch 76 designed to receive anextendable shaft 78 of a latching solenoid 80 upon application ofelectricity. In the absence of electrical power or upon the occurrenceof some other standby event, such as low cell voltage, the solenoidrelaxes and the return spring 81 withdraws the shaft from the notch. Ifthere is no longer an actuating force 82 being applied, then the spring46 causes retraction of the push rod. In FIG. 7B, the push rod 48 iscoupled to an electromagnetic armature 83 that can be selectivelysecured to an electromagnet coil latch 84 coupled to a power source 26through a switch 50. Upon releasing the electromagnetic latch 84, thespring 46 causes retraction of the push rod.

In FIGS. 6A-F and 7A-B it should be appreciated that in order toaccomplish movement of the push rod, the elements causing or preventingmovement of the push should be secured to the housing or otherstationary structure of the electrochemical apparatus.

FIG. 8 is a schematic side view of an experimental electrochemical cellsetup 100 having an adjustable load, such as a bolt 102 and spring 104,and a load cell 106 for measuring the load and displaying or recordingthe load with a meter 108. The ozone production efficiency can bemonitored as a function of compression force between the electrode andthe PEM. It is the compression force per unit area that is believed tobe important to optimal cell performance.

FIG. 9 is a schematic side view of an electrochemical apparatus 110having a water reservoir or housing 112 and a sealing member, such asdiaphragm 114, allowing fluid-sealed movement of the push rod end 48 acoupled to the positioning member 116 that is isolated from the waterand the push rod end 48 b coupled to the anode 12. Optionally, thesealing member may be piston rings, shaft seals and the like.

As shown, the cathode 18 and PEM 16 are stationarily secured at the topand bottom to floor 118 and interior wall 120 portions of the housing112. The anode 12 is maintained in alignment with the cathode/PEM by aguide member comprising the surfaces 122, 124, which are preferablycircumferential about the anode 12. The apparatus 110 is also shownhaving an anode chamber 126 isolated from a cathode chamber 128. Onebenefit of the isolation is the separation of the anode gas(es) from thecathode gas(es). However, as a consequence of the isolation and theelectroosmotic flow of water from the anode to the cathode, it isbeneficial to have a conduit 129 in the apparatus 110 to allow thereturn of water from the cathode chamber 128 to the anode chamber 126without mixing the gas(es).

Optionally, the invention provides a unique gas destruct system whichcan destruct waste hydrogen and/or ozone. The hydrogen is mixed withoxygen (or air) and passed over a hydrogen destruction catalystproducing heat. The hot gases, including excess oxygen may then becombined with waste ozone and passed downstream over an ozonedestruction catalyst. Since the ozone generator continuously produceshydrogen, the heat from the hydrogen destruction maintains the ozonecatalyst at elevated temperatures to make the catalyst more active andto continuously dry the ozone destruct. In this manner, the ozonedestruct catalyst is maintained in a ready state for the destruction ofozone. Alternatively, the hydrogen destruct can provide high-grade heatthat may be used in other, unrelated processes, such as domestic hotwater heating. U.S. Pat. No. 5,989,407 and U.S. patent application Ser.No. 09/383,548 filed on Aug. 26, 1999 are incorporated by referenceherein.

FIG. 10A is a schematic side view of an alternative electrochemicalapparatus 130 having a hydraulically actuated anode, wherein the motivefluid may be the process water or another fluid. The anode 12 is coupledto the push rod 48 that has a piston 132 on the opposing end. The piston132 is actuated by a fluid entering the piston headspace 134 to compressthe return spring 136 and position the anode into compressed contactwith the PEM 16. The apparatus has an optional diaphragm 138 attachedaround the push rod 48 to maintain isolation of the process water, whichenters through the passage 140 and exits with gases produced throughpassage 142, from the motive fluid.

The cathode 18 is stationary with the PEM 16 secured to the cathode.Notably, there is no cathode chamber or reservoir around the cathode,but rather the cathode is open to the air and maybe referred to as“dry”. The open or exposed cathode may be suitable for airdepolarization as well as evaporative disposal of both theelectroosmotic water and any product water. Accordingly, there is nodirect supply of water to the cathode.

FIG. 10B is a schematic side view of two electrochemical cells/apparatusaccording to FIG. 10A, but having a common cathode therebetween. Thecommon cathode 18 is coupled to a power source 26 as in FIG. 4B.However, the apparatus of FIG. 10B has two mobile anodes 12 coupled totwo means for positioning and retracting, which operate the same as theindividual means of FIG. 10A. The two means may be actuated by the sameor different motive fluids and may be actuated and retracted at the sameor different moments. It is anticipated that the two mobile electrodesmay vary from each other in any of a number of characteristics, forexample catalyst loading, amount of active area, and types orconcentrations of products produced. Optionally, the two electrodes maybe operated independently to produce solutions that are optimized fordifferent uses, such as using one anode for producing an 18 weightpercent ozone solution for sanitizing countertops and using anotheranode for producing 2 weight percent ozone to cleanse skin burns.

FIG. 11 is a schematic side view of an alternative electrochemicalapparatus 150 having a process water reservoir 152 and a pump 154 thatdelivers process water 153 to the electrochemical cell (anode substrate12, PEM 16, cathode substrate 18) as well as to an integral hydraulicactuator. The hydraulic actuator is similar to that of FIG. 10, exceptthat the piston 132 is actuated with the process water 153. Theapparatus is also provided with a filter 154, preferably a carbonfilter, to remove, among other things, particulates, dissolved organiccompounds and heavy metals (also acting as an ozone destruct catalyst),a flow controller 156 (such as a flow restricting orifice), adeionization resin bed 158 to remove dissolved ions from the processwater 153, a lead removing unit 160 (such as a column of zeolite,alumina, silica or other materials known to bind or adsorb lead ions andparticulate or colloidal lead species), a venturi 162, and abackpressure control orifice 164. It should be recognized that the orderof the filter 154, flow controller 156 and deionization resin bed 158 isnot restricted.

In operation, water 153 from the reservoir 152 is provided to the inletof pump 154 through a reservoir discharge conduit 165. The pumpdischarge conduit 166 provides high-pressure water for delivery to thepiston motive fluid chamber 134 or through the venturi 162 andbackpressure control orifice 164 back to the reservoir 152. The highpressure process water actuates the piston as in FIG. 10, but then theprocess water passes through the carbon filter, flow controller anddeionization resin bed on its way to the anode chamber. The deionizedwater supports electrolysis at the anode 12 as well as protonconductivity through the PEM 16 to the cathode 18. The electroosmoticwater passing to the cathode 18 may be recycled or discarded (i.e.,dumped into a drain or allowed to evaporate). However, the water that isnot used in the anode becomes ozonated and the water escapes the anodechamber along with the ozone/oxygen gas stream through discharge conduit167 and passes through the lead removal unit 160. Downstream of the leadremoval unit 160 the ozonated water and the ozone/oxygen gas stream aredrawn into the venturi and returned to the reservoir 152 where theconcentration of ozone is allowed to increase.

The startup of an electrochemical apparatus, such as the apparatus 150of FIG. 11, may proceed in many ways, but it is preferred that thestartup include: (1) introducing process water into the water reservoir,(2) applying a voltage between the first and second electrodes, (3)turning on the water pump, and (4) positioning the mobile electrode intocontact with the electrolyte, most preferably in the order stated.

FIG. 12 is a schematic side view of the electrochemical apparatus 150 ofFIG. 11 having the carbon filter 154 and deionization bed 158 relocatedto the reservoir discharge conduit 165. Also, the flow control orifice156 is left between the motive fluid chamber 134 and the anode chamberin order to maintain or enhance the pressure differential acting uponthe piston 132. It is also shown that the return spring 136 can bedisposed in tension.

FIGS. 13A-C are schematic views of deionization beds arranged tooutwardly display a color change that indicates to individual users ofthe device the extent to which the beds are exhausted. Suitabledeionization materials that change color upon exchanging ions includeMBD-12 and MBD-30 Self Indicating Mixed Bed Resins (available fromResintech, Inc. of Cherry Hill, N.J.) and IONAC NM-65 Indicator MixedBed Resin (available from Sybron Chemicals Inc. of Birmingham, N.J.).Such color changes may be due to the presence of an indicator dye in, onor around the deionization materials. While many arrangements of adeionization bed adjacent a clear sight glass are possible, it ispreferred that the deionization bed form an elongated column having ahigh aspect ratio (i.e., a length many times the width). In this manner,the deionization materials closest to the column inlet exchange ionsfirst and the material downstream will not be significantly used untilthe material upstream of it is fully exchanged. Therefore, there is afairly distinct region of the column that is carrying out thedeionization at any one time and this region propagates along the lengthof the column as the material gets used. Since a deionization materialwith a color change indicator is used, there is a color change thatpropagates along the column. By arranging the column in a manner where aplurality of serially spaced apart segments of the column pass under asight glass, a display can be provided that allows a rapid indication ofuse. Preferably, the sight glass is marked with a “replace deionizingbed” instruction adjacent one of the later column segments viewablethrough the sight glass. While the foregoing arrangement has beendescribed with regard to a deionization bed, a similar arrangement,color indicator and sight glass maybe used to prepare a lead removalunit.

In FIG. 13A, a side view shows that the deionization column 170 isarranged in an elongated serpentine pattern having an inlet 172, anoutlet 174, deionization material 176 disposed there between, and asight glass 178 adjacent one end of the serpentine. FIG. 13B is an endview of the column 170 showing the display formed by the sight glasses.For example, an individual user would quickly notice that the presentcolumn was two-fifths spent and that the column should be replaced whenthe column becomes four-fifths spent in order to prevent breakthrough ofions that could then reach and damage the electrocatalysts or the PEM.While the display is shown as a segmented array of sight glasses it isequally suitable to have a continuous sight glass along the end. FIG.13C is a side view of an alternative column arranged in an spiralingpattern having an inlet 172, an outlet 174, deionization material 176,and a sight glass 178 extending over downstream segments of the column.While the segments here do not represent equal fractions of the column,the display is still effective to instruct the individual user when tochange out the column with a new column.

FIG. 14 is a schematic side view of an electrochemical apparatus usingdeionized water from a reservoir 91 rather than using process water fromreservoir 152. As with FIGS. 7B-C, the use of prepackaged deionizedwater 91 eliminates the threat of contaminating the anode and PEM suchthat filtration and deionization devices are not needed within theapparatus. Here, the process water 153 is pressurized by pump 154 anddelivered to the back of the piston 132 for actuating the mobileelectrode and through the venturi 162 to draw ozone gas into the processwater. Preferably, the anode chamber is arranged with the water conduit93 such that the level of deionized water remains below the ozone exitport 169. It is also preferred that the anode chamber have sufficientheadspace to allow for phase separation of the ozone/oxygen gas from thewater, such that only the gas phase is drawn through port 169 to theventuri 162. A seal or diaphragm is provided around the push rod 48 toprevent passage of the pressurized process fluid acting upon the pistonfrom getting into the anode chamber. As shown, the diaphragm 171 definesthe upper limit of the anode chamber.

FIGS. 18A-C are perspective views of retractable electrodes coupled to ashaft, wherein the electrode has been modified to improve the currentdistribution/collection across the face of the electrode. FIG. 18Aillustrates an electrode 200 having a set of electronically conductingribs 206, preferably metal, that are formed into a radial pattern on theback surface of the anode substrate 204 in order to improve currentdistribution or collection from the electronically conducting shaft 202across the face of the electrode substrate 204. This design improvescurrent distribution without blocking the surface area of the anodesubstrate or increasing the thickness of the porous anode substrate.FIG. 18B illustrates an electrode 210 having a set of fully embeddedelectronically conducting members 208 disposed radially from the shaft202. In both FIGS. 18A and 18B, the electronically conducting members206, 208 are formed within the porous substrate 204. Preferably, theelectronically conducting members are disposed within a metal powder andpressed together under substantial pressure to form a “green body.” Thegreen body is then transferred into a furnace for sintering thesubstrate 204. FIG. 18C illustrates an electrode 220 having a lesspreferred conical substrate 224 coupled to the shaft 222, wherein theincreased thickness of the substrate increases the current distributionor collection across the face of the anode. Unfortunately, the increasedthickness also increases the distance that anode reactants and productsmust diffuse.

EXAMPLE 1

Porous titanium substrates, namely pieces of a woven titanium cloth(150×150 per inch, clean, 0.0027″ wire diameter, twill weave, 35.4% openarea; Unique Wire Weave, Hillside, N.J. 07205), were pretreated andsubsequently electroplated with β-lead dioxide. A number of these pleaddioxide-coated titanium cloths were used in an electrochemical cellincorporating a commercially available proton exchange polymer membrane(sold under the trade name Nafion®, by E. I. du Pont de Nemours andCompany, Wilmington, Del. 19898), which is a perfluorosulfonic acidsolid polymer electrolyte, and tested using an apparatus described inU.S. Pat. No. 5,460,705 commonly owned by the applicant. In some cases,the β-lead dioxide-coated titanium cloths were mechanically pressedagainst one side of a proton exchange membrane sample simply by means ofclamping together the endplates of the electrochemical cell. In othercases, the β-lead dioxide-coated titanium cloths were hot pressed ontoone side of similar samples of a proton exchange membrane. Hot pressinginvolved placing a sandwich structure, consisting of the cation exchangemembrane, the β-lead dioxide-coated titanium cloth anode electrode, anda platinum-supported carbon catalyzed carbon cloth gas diffusionelectrode on either side of the membrane between the platens of a hotpress preheated to 100° C. and pressing at approximately 100 psi. Thetemperature of the platens was then raised to 120° C. and a pressure of2,500 psi was applied for 90 seconds.

On testing the performance of electrochemical cells containing β-leaddioxide-coated titanium cloth electrodes bonded to cation exchangepolymer membranes by either method, it was found that the ozone gascontent in the evolved ozone/oxygen gas stream decreased from aninitially high value of 12-15 wt % to a value of the order of 1-2 wt %over a period of time of the order of 12-24 hours. Further, cellvoltages decreased from initially high values of the order of 4-6 voltsto a value of the order of 1-2 volts. In addition, upon dismantlingtested electrochemical cells that contained β-lead dioxide-coatedtitanium cloth as the anode substrate/anode electrocatalyst material,the surface of the proton exchange polymer membrane in contact with theβ-lead dioxide electrocatalyst layer had regions covered with a milkywhite liquid substance. The surface of the proton exchange polymermembrane in contact with the platinum-supported carbon cathodicelectrocatalyst layer displayed dendrithic or fractal-like growths of amaterial within the membrane.

While the nature of these materials on the surfaces of the protonexchange polymer membranes were not determined, it is proposed that thefollowing processes took place on testing these electrochemical cellsfor electrochemical ozone evolution. The individual wire strands thatmade up each woven titanium cloth sample was electroplated with leaddioxide over the entire circumference of the cylindrically shaped wirestrands. However, when the β-lead dioxide-coated titanium cloth sampleswere bonded to the surfaces of proton exchange membrane samples, eitherby mechanical pressing on clamping the end plates or by hot pressing,only a fraction of the entire surface area of the β-lead dioxideelectrocatalyst layer was in contact and embedded into the protonexchange polymer membrane material.

On operating an electrochemical cell containing such an anodicsubstrate/electrocatalyst layer, parts of the β-lead dioxideelectrocatalyst layer not in contact with the proton exchange polymermembrane slowly dissolved in the presence of the highly acidicenvironment that exists at the anode surface under electrochemical ozoneevolution conditions. Some of the dissolved β-lead dioxide, in the formof Pb²⁺ cations, migrated through the cation exchange polymer membraneto the surface of the cathode, under the presence of the appliedelectric field, where they were reduced to metallic lead atoms.Gradually, build up of atom-upon-atom of lead metal gave rise to adendrithic growth of electrodeposited lead metal from the surface of thecathode through the proton conducting channels that are known to existin proton exchange polymer membranes to the surface of the anode.Eventually, the proton exchange polymer membrane became a mixedionic/electronic conductor with increasing electronic conductivitycharacter as the time of electrochemical ozone evolution increased. Thisaccounts for the decrease in cell voltage observed with increasing timeof electrolysis.

Because the woven titanium cloth consisted of fine cylindrical titaniumwires, subsequent contact of these β-lead dioxide-coated titanium wireswith the surface of the proton exchange polymer membrane led tolocalized point contacts embedded into the surface of the membrane,particularly at points corresponding to the overlap of the woven wires.Thus, although the average current density applied to theelectrochemical cells on carrying out the various tests were 1 A cm⁻² onaverage, it is very likely that the local real current density appliedat the point contacts could be of the order of 5-10 A cm⁻². Thecombination of heating effects (associated with the high local currentdensity) with the highly oxidizing environment (associated with ozoneevolution) gave rise to local degradation of the proton exchangemembrane. This is in keeping with the observation of a milky whiteliquid substance on the surface of the proton exchange polymer membranein contact with the β-anodic lead dioxide electrocatalyst layer. In allcases, electrochemical tests involving β-lead dioxide-coated titaniumcloth anodes were carried out using deionized water circulated between areservoir and the electrochemical cell, where the temperature of thewater was maintained at 30±3° C.

EXAMPLE 2

Another type of porous titanium substrates, namely sintered poroustitanium substrates derived from the sintering of regular shapedtitanium powders (e.g., spheres) or irregular shaped titanium particlesunder high temperature and pressure in an inert gas environment andavailable from Astro Met, Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio 45215 (100-80/120 and100-45/60; 5.5″×11″×0.050″ sheets) and Mott Corporation, Farmington,Conn. 06032 (Mott 40 micron and Mott 20 micron), respectively, wereused. The sintered porous titanium substrates were pretreated andsubsequently electroplated with β-lead dioxide as described above forthe titanium cloth samples. The β-lead dioxide-coated sintered poroustitanium substrates were mechanically pressed against one side ofsamples of a proton exchange polymer membrane (Nafion®) on clamping theendplates of an electrochemical cell together. They were tested underidentical conditions to those utilized for the β-lead dioxide-coatedtitanium cloth anodic substrates. The thickness of the porous titaniumsubstrates was in the range 0.040″-0.075″ and it was observed that thesesubstrates had very flat parallel surfaces. β-lead dioxide was depositedon only one surface of the sintered porous titanium substrates whichformed a uniform coating covering the whole surface of each substrate.

On testing β-lead dioxide-coated sintered porous titanium substrates forelectrochemical ozone evolution, it was found that electrochemical cellscontaining these anodic substrates/electrocatalyst layers could produceozone at high concentrations of the order of 12 to 15 wt % for seeminglyindefinite periods of time, so long as such electrochemical cellsremained under compression and an applied current density of 1.0-1.6 Acm⁻² was impressed on the electrodes from an external DC power source.Cell voltages of 3.5-5.5 V were observed on flowing deionized waterbetween the electrochemical cell and a reservoir at a temperature of30±3° C. The unexpected result of the continuous production of highweight percent ozone for an extended period of time is attributed to thefact that the sintered porous titanium substrates have flat planarsurfaces. Thus, the β-lead dioxide layer on such surfaces is also flatresulting in all of the exposed surface area of the Plead dioxide layerbeing in contact with the surface of the proton exchange polymermembrane, and under electrochemical operating conditions, having avoltage greater than 3.0 V applied across the plead dioxide/protonexchange polymer membrane interface. As indicated in FIG. 1, under suchcircumstances, β-lead dioxide should be stable indefinitely.

EXAMPLE 3

β-lead dioxide coated sintered porous titanium substrates were subjectedto multiple applied current density “on”/“off” events, leading to agradual lowering of the ozone current efficiency. For coated substratesthat were maintained continuously in compression with the protonexchange polymer membrane, both in the case when the applied currentdensity was “on” and when the applied current density was “off,” theeffect of four applied current density “on”/“off” events on the ozonecurrent efficiency for an electrochemical cell initially producing ozoneat a current efficiency of 14.5 (corresponding to a concentration of14.5 wt %) is presented in FIGS. 17A-B. It was further observed that thedramatic effect of applied current density “on”/“off” events on ozonecurrent efficiency was more pronounced for electrodes having lowelectrocatalyst loadings of β-lead dioxide. For instance, for β-leaddioxide loadings of 5-10 mg cm⁻², 2-3 applied current density “on”/“off”events reduced the ozone production capability of the electrochemicalcell from 10-12 wt % to less than 2 wt %. For an electrode with a β-leaddioxide loading of 80 mg cm⁻², an ozone production capability of theorder of 5 wt % was obtained after 9 applied current density “on”/“off”events.

Degradation in ozone production performance as a result of timeintervals while no current density is impressed upon the electrodes issuggested by the data presented in FIG. 1. This figure clearly showsthat for the lead-water system at low electrode potentials, that is,when no anodic current is flowing through the electrode/electrolyteinterface, Pb²⁺ ions are the most stable species in acidic environments.Maintaining a β-lead dioxide-coated sintered porous titanium substratein contact with an acidic proton exchange polymer membrane when nocurrent is flowing through an electrochemical cell will give rise todegradation of the β-lead dioxide electrocatalyst layer whichsubsequently hinders, or reduces, its ability to evolve ozone gas onreimpressing a current between the β-lead dioxide-coated anode and acathode.

Under the conditions of no applied electric field, that is, when thecurrent density impressed on the electrodes is turned “off,”dissolution/precipitation processes involving PbO₂/Pb²⁺ are likely totake place at the β-lead dioxide/proton exchange polymer membraneinterface. In the absence of an applied electric field during current“off” events, there is no driving force for the migration of Pb²⁺ ionsinto the proton conducting polymer membrane towards the surface of thecathode unlike the situation described above for the β-leaddioxide-coated titanium cloth.

EXAMPLE 4

An experimental setup was prepared including four electrochemical cellsto test whether the removal of β-lead dioxide-coated porous anodicsubstrates from being in contact with proton conducting polymermembranes, during time intervals when no current is flowing between theanode and cathode, would significantly increase the lifetime of suchelectrochemical cells and maintain high ozone production rates when anapplied current density is reimpressed on the electrodes after a current“off” event. However, this solution is only applicable to porous anodicsubstrates that have flat planar surfaces as described above in thesecond example which involved the use of sintered porous titaniumsubstrates. The proposed solution, which is the basis of the inventiondisclosed in this patent application, will not be effective in the caseof porous anodic substrates that have only portions of the surface areaof a layer, or regions of the surface of a layer, of β-lead dioxideanodic electrocatalyst in contact with the proton exchange polymermembrane when the electrocatalyst-coated porous substrate and themembrane are compressed together in an electrochemical cell.

Porous anodic substrates that would be ineffective are those that have arelatively small thickness (less than 0.010″ thick) and have a layer ofβ-lead dioxide electrocatalyst material on a front or first surface,around the entire perimeter of fine wires, on walls of large poresreadily accessible to water and on a back or second surface. Arepresentative example of such porous substrates was described above inthe first example and involved the use of porous woven titanium cloth.Other ineffective porous substrates would include non-woven cloths,woven or non-woven meshes, screens, perforated thin metal sheets, orthin metal sheets with microetched holes. However, if the β-lead dioxideelectrocatalyst layer is deposited on only those regions of the surface,segments of the surface or portions of the exposed surface area of wovenor non-woven cloths, woven or non-woven meshes, screens, perforated thinmetal sheets, or thin metal sheets with microetched holes that are incontact with a proton exchange polymer membrane when such plated porousanodic substrates and membrane specimens are under compression inelectrochemical cells, then the proposed solution is as effective forthese substrates as it is for sintered porous metal or ceramicsubstrates described in the second example above.

An apparatus and method for retracting a β-lead dioxide-coated porousanodic substrate from making contact with a proton conducting polymermembrane and for subsequently having the ability n of placing such aβ-lead dioxide-coated porous anodic substrate back in contact with theproton conducting polymer membrane was prepared in accordance with FIG.7. In particular, the apparatus and method of the invention must becapable of retracting all of the exposed surface area of the β-leaddioxide coating on a porous anodic substrate from making contact with aproton exchange polymer membrane specimen in an electrochemical cellduring a current “off” event. Similarly, the apparatus and method of theinvention must be capable of placing all of the exposed surface area ofthe β-lead dioxide coating on a porous anodic substrate in contact witha proton exchange polymer membrane specimen in an electrochemical cellduring a current “on” event.

The cathode and PEM were stationary with only the porous titanium anodesubstrate and lead dioxide electrocatalyst coupled to the end of anelectrically operated solenoid actuator. The solenoid actuator pushedthe anode substrate/electrocatalyst into compressed contact with the PEMand a pair of springs raised the anode substrate/electrocatalyst awayfrom the PEM. A controller was used to control each of the fourelectrochemical cells at a given duration and frequency of operation.Each of the cells was operated without switching off the power. However,the cells were turned “off” by retracting the anode out of contact withthe PEM/cathode, since the non-ionically conducting deionized watereffectively provided an open circuit. Cell #1 was operated in a cycle of1.5 minutes “on” and 1.5 minutes “off”. Cell #2 was operated in a cycleof 25 minutes “on” and 10 minutes “off”. Cell #3 was operated in a cycleof 25 minutes “on” and 2 hours “off”. Cell #4 was operated in a cycle of26 minutes “on” and 24 hours “off”. A control cell was operated in whichthe power was switched off during periods when the anode was retracted,but the results showed no significant difference in performance relativeto cells having the power on continuously.

The ozone gas concentration produced by each of the four electrochemicalcells was measured using an Ocean Optics UV absorption system andsoftware to monitor the absorption of UV light by dissolved ozone in thedeionized water surrounding the cell. FIGS. 15A-D show the lightabsorbance that was measured periodically after large numbers ofoperating cycles had been performed for cells 1-4, respectively. Thelegend in each figure indicates the number of operating cycles at whichthe dissolved ozone concentration was tested. For each test, the figuresplot percentage light absorption as a function of time in seconds for aperiod of about 1500 seconds. Each of the charts in FIGS. 15A-D showthat very little decline in ozone production occurred despite 62,218;63,468; 4,826 and 1,412 operating cycles in cells 1-4, respectively.

EXAMPLE 5

An electrochemical cell was prepared in accordance with FIG. 8 and thecell voltage was measured as the compression between the electrodes wasvaried between about 10 psi and about 260 psi. FIG. 16 is a graph of theresulting cell voltage as a function of pressure in psi for theelectrochemical cell. The graph shows that cell voltage declines rapidlywith increasing pressure up to a pressure of about 50 psi. At pressuresabove 50 psi, additional pressure produced very little decline in cellvoltage.

While the foregoing is directed to the preferred embodiment of thepresent invention, other and further embodiments of the invention may bedevised without departing from the basic scope thereof, and the scopethereof is determined by the claims that follow.

1. An electrochemical apparatus, comprising: at least oneelectrochemical cell having first and second electrodes and an ionexchange membrane disposed between the first and second electrodes, apower source for applying a voltage between the first and secondelectrodes, and means for automatically retracting one or more of thefirst and second electrodes out of contact with the ion exchangemembrane.
 2. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 1, wherein the meansfor automatically retracting is passive.
 3. The electrochemicalapparatus of claim 2, wherein the passive means for automaticallyretracting is a stored energy device.
 4. The electrochemical apparatusof claim 3, wherein the stored energy device is selected from a spring,gravity, hydraulic accumulator, pneumatic accumulator, or combinationsthereof.
 5. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 1, wherein the one ormore of the first and second electrodes includes material that isunstable or deactivates in the presence of the ion exchange membranewithout applying a voltage.
 6. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 5,wherein the material is lead dioxide.
 7. The electrochemical apparatusof claim 6, characterized in that the lead dioxide maintains itsactivity during repetitive cycling of the power source.
 8. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 1, further comprising: a pump fordelivering water to the at least one electrochemical cell, wherein themeans for retracting is a hydraulic actuator in fluid communication withthe water.
 9. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 8, furthercomprising means for introducing ozone into a separate system.
 10. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 9, wherein the ozone comprisesdissolved ozone in water, an ozone/oxygen gas stream, or combinationsthereof.
 11. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 1, wherein the ionexchange membrane and one of the electrodes are stationary.
 12. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 11, wherein the stationary electrodeis a cathode.
 13. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 1, wherein theat least one electrochemical cell is a plurality of electrochemicalcells.
 14. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 13, wherein theplurality of electrochemical cells form a stack of electrochemicalcells.
 15. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 1, further comprising:a lead-containing catalyst disposed on one or more of the first andsecond electrodes; and a lead removal device in fluid communication withthe at least one electrochemical cell.
 16. The electrochemical apparatusof claim 15, wherein the lead removal device contains a material knownto bind or adsorb lead ions, particulates or colloidal species.
 17. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 16, wherein the material is selectedfrom a zeolite, alumina, silica, or mixtures thereof.
 18. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 16, wherein the material is inpowdered or granulated form.
 19. The electrochemical apparatus of claim1, wherein the one or more of the first and second electrodes areretracted out of contact with the ion exchange membrane when no voltageis being applied between the first and second electrodes.
 20. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 1, wherein the means for retractingthe one or more electrodes further comprises a guide member to align theelectrodes.
 21. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 1, wherein themeans for retracting the electrodes is coupled to the one or more of thefirst and second electrodes by a positioning rod.
 22. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 21, further comprising an electrodechamber having a liquid impermeable diaphragm sealing the chamber andmoving along with the positioning rod.
 23. The electrochemical apparatusof claim 1, further comprising: means for positioning the first andsecond electrodes in contact with the ion exchange membrane.
 24. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 23, wherein the first electrode iscoupled to the means for positioning and the first electrode has anelectrocatalyst formed only on surfaces of the first electrode that aredisposed to make contact with the ion exchange membrane.
 25. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 24, wherein the second electrode isstationary.
 26. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 25, wherein theion exchange membrane is secured onto the second electrode.
 27. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 23, wherein the means for positioningis selected from a hydraulic actuator, a pneumatic actuator, manualmechanical means, piezo-electric means, electric motor means, orcombinations thereof.
 28. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 23,further comprising: a pump for delivering water to the at least oneelectrochemical cell, wherein the means for positioning is a hydraulicactuator in fluid communication with the water.
 29. The electrochemicalapparatus of claim 23, wherein the means for positioning provides acompressive force against the ion exchange membrane generally greaterthan 15 psig.
 30. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 23, wherein thecompressive force is between 5 and 100 psig.
 31. The electrochemicalapparatus of claim 23, wherein the means for retracting overcomes themeans for positioning when the power source is off.
 32. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 23, wherein the means for positioningovercomes the means for retracting when the power source is on.
 33. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 23, wherein the means for positioningthe electrodes further comprises a guide member to align the electrodes.34. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 23, wherein the means forpositioning the electrodes is coupled to the one or more of the firstand second electrodes by a positioning rod.
 35. The electrochemicalapparatus of claim 34, further comprising an electrode chamber having aliquid impermeable diaphragm sealing the chamber and moving along withthe positioning rod.
 36. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 34,wherein the positioning rod comprises an electronic conductorcommunicating between a voltage source and the one or more of the firstand second electrodes.
 37. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 23,further comprising a water reservoir in fluid communication with aninlet to the pump and in fluid communication with an outlet from the atleast one electrochemical cell.
 38. The electrochemical apparatus ofclaim 37, further comprising a recirculation conduit from an outlet ofthe pump back to the water reservoir.
 39. The electrochemical apparatusof claim 38, further comprising means for apportioning the amount ofwater pumped to the at least one electrochemical cell and the amount ofwater recirculated back to the water reservoir.
 40. The electrochemicalapparatus of claim 23, further comprising an ion exchange bed disposedupstream of the at least one electrochemical cell.
 41. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 40, further comprising an ozonedestruct catalyst upstream of the ion exchange bed.
 42. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 23, wherein the at least oneelectrochemical cell is a fuel cell.
 43. The electrochemical apparatusof claim 1, wherein the ion exchange membrane is a cation exchangemembrane.
 44. An electrochemical apparatus, comprising: anelectrochemical cell having first and second electrodes and electrolytedisposed between the first and second electrodes, a power source forapplying a voltage between the first and second electrodes, means forselectively positioning one or more of the first and second electrodesinto contact with the electrolyte; and means for retracting the one ormore of the first and second electrodes out of contact with theelectrolyte when the means for selectively positioning is turned off.45. A method of operating an electrochemical cell having first andsecond electrodes and electrolyte disposed between the first and secondelectrodes, comprising: (a) automatically separating one or more of thefirst and second electrodes from the electrolyte upon one or morestandby conditions, wherein the electrolyte is an ion exchange membrane.46. THe method of claim 45, wherein the one or more standby conditionsis selected from a voltage os less than one Volt being applied betweenthe first and second electrodes, expiration of a time period, an ozoneconcentration greater than a setpoint ozone concentration, contactpressure of less than 10 psig, or combinations thereof.
 47. The methodof claim 45, further comprising: (b) automatically positioning the oneor more of the first and second electrodes into contact with theelectrolyte upon one or more production conditions.
 48. The method ofclaim 47, wherein the one or more production conditions is selected froma voltage greater than one Volt being applied between the first andsecond electrodes, expiration of a time period, an ozone concentrationless than a setpoint ozone concentration, contact pressure greater than10 psig, or combinations thereof.
 49. The method of claim 47, whereinthe electrolyte is a polymer electrolyte membrane, and wherein the stepof automatically positioning comprises compressing the one or more ofthe first and second electrodes against the polymer electrolyte membranewith a compressive force between 5 and 100 psig.
 50. The method of claim49, wherein the compressive force is between 25 and 70 psig.
 51. Themethod of claim 47, further comprising: applying a voltage between thefirst and second electrodes.
 52. The method of claim 51, furthercomprising: turning on a water pump.
 53. THe method of claim 52, furthercomprising: automatically positioning the one or more of the first andsecond electrodes into contact with the electrolyte upon one or moreproduction conditions.
 54. At least one electrochemical coil including acathode electrode, an anode electrode, an acidic electrolyte disposedbetween the anode electrode and the cathode electrode, and a powersource for applying a voltage between the anode electrode and thecathode electrode, characterized in that the anode electrode has a layerof lead dioxide electrocatalyst facing the acidic electrolyte, aretractor mechanism being provided which is responsive to one or morepredetermined standby conditions to retract the anode electrode from aninitial position in which the lead dioxide electrocatalyst is in contactwith the electrolyte to a retracted position in which the lead dioxideelectrocatalyst is spaced from the electrolyte.
 55. The at least oneelectrochemical cell of claim 54 wherein the retractor mechanism is apassive retraction mechanism.
 56. The at least one electrochemical cellof claim 54 wherein the lead dioxide electrocatalyst is β-lead dioxide,α-lead dioxide, or a combination thereof.
 57. The at least oneelectrochemical cell of claim 54 wherein the acidic electrolyte is aproton exchange membrane.
 58. The at least one electrochemical cell ofclaim 57, wherein the one or more standby conditions includes a contactpressure of less than 10 psig of the anode electrode with the protonexchange membrane.
 59. The at least one electrochemical cell of claim 57further comprising an actuator for moving the anode electrode from theretracted position back to the initial position in response to one ormore production conditions including a contact pressure of greater than10 psig of the anode electrode with the electrolyte.
 60. The at leastone electrochemical cell of claim 54 wherein the acidic electrolyte isan aqueous solution of a dissolved inorganic acid, a dissolved organicacid, or a mixture thereof.
 61. The at least one electrochemical cell ofclaim 54, wherein the one or more standby conditions are selected from:a voltage of less than one volt being applied between the first andsecond electrodes, the expiration of a time period of operation of thecell, an ozone concentration greater than a set point ozoneconcentration within the cell, no anodic oxygen/ozone evolutionreactions occurring, and no current flowing through the cell.
 62. The atleast one electrochemical cell of claim 54 further comprising anactuator for moving the anode electrode from the retracted position backto the initial position in response to one or more productionconditions.
 63. The at least one electrochemical cell of claim 62wherein the one or more production conditions are selected from: avoltage greater than one volt being applied between the first and secondelectrodes, the expiration of a time period from termination ofoperation of the cell, and an ozone concentration less than a set pointozone concentration within the cell.
 64. The at least oneelectrochemical cell of claim 62 wherein the retractor mechanism and theactuator are constituted by a passive device biasing the anode electrodeaway from the electrolyte and an active mechanism which, in operation,overcomes the biasing effect of the passive device to move the anodeelectrode into contact with the electrolyte.
 65. The at least oneelectrochemical cell of claim 64 wherein the active mechanism receivespower from the power source so that when the power source is connectedto apply a voltage between the anode electrode and the cathode electrodethe power source provides power to the active mechanism.
 66. The atleast one electrochemical cell of claim 54 wherein the lead dioxideelectrocatalyst retains its β-lead dioxide crystalline form.
 67. The atleast one electrochemical cell of claim 66 further comprising anactuator for moving the anode electrode from the retracted position backto the initial position in response to one or more productionconditions, wherein the acidic electrolyte is a proton exchangemembrane, and wherein the one or mare production conditions includes acontact pressure of greater than 10 psig of the anode electrode with theproton exchange membrane.
 68. At least one electrochemical cellincluding a cathode electrode, an anode electrode, an acidic electrolytedisposed between the anode electrode and the cathode electrode, and apower source for applying a voltage between the anode electrode and thecathode electrode, characterized in that the apparatus further comprisesa mechanism to retract the anode electrode out of contact with theelectrolyte in response to the absence of a current flowing through theelectrochemical cell.
 69. At least one electrochemical cell including acathode electrode, an anode electrode, and an acidic electrolytedisposed between the anode electrode and the cathode electrode, and apower source for applying a voltage between the anode electrode and thecathode electrode, characterized in that the apparatus further comprisesa passive mechanism biasing the anode electrode away from theelectrolyte and an active mechanism which, when operative, overcomes thebiasing effect of the passive mechanism to bring the anode electrodeinto contact with the electrolyte.
 70. The at least one electrochemicalcell of claim 69 wherein the active mechanism is adapted to be actuatedwhen the power source is connected to apply the voltage between theelectrodes.
 71. The at least one electrochemical cell of claim 69,wherein the active mechanism is selected from electrical, hydraulic,pneumatic, piezoelectric, and combinations thereof.
 72. The at least oneelectrochemical cell of claim 69, wherein the passive means is selectedfrom a spring, gravity, hydraulic accumulator, pneumatic accumulator,and combinations thereof.
 73. At least one electrochemical cellincluding a cathode electrode, an anode electrode, an acidic electrolytedisposed between the anode electrode and the cathode electrode, and apower source for applying a voltage between the anode electrode and thecathode electrode, characterized in that the apparatus further comprisesa mechanism to retract the anode electrode out of contact with theelectrolyte to interrupt a circuit incorporating the at least oneelectrochemical cell, thereby placing the at least one electrochemicalcell in a standby condition.
 74. The at least one electrochemical cellof claim 73, wherein the electrolyte is an ion exchange membrane. 75.The at least one electrochemical cell of claim 74, wherein the at leastone electrochemical cell is a fuel cell.
 76. The at least oneelectrochemical cell of claim 74, wherein the ion exchange membrane is acation exchange membrane.
 77. The at least one electrochemical cell ofclaim 73, wherein the mechanism to retract the anode is selected from ahydraulic actuator, a pneumatic actuator, manual mechanical means,piezo-electric means, electric motor means, or combinations thereof. 78.An electrochemical apparatus, comprising: at least one electrochemicalcell having first and second electrodes and electrolyte disposed betweenthe first and second electrodes, wherein the one or more of the firstand second electrodes includes material that is unstable or deactivatesin the presence of the electrolyte without applying a voltage, a powersource for applying a voltage between the first and second electrodes,and means for automatically retracting one or more of the first andsecond electrodes out of contact with the electrolyte.
 79. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 78, wherein the means forautomatically retracting is passive.
 80. The electrochemical apparatusof claim 79, wherein the passive means for automatically retracting is astored energy device.
 81. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 80,wherein the stored energy device is selected from a spring, gravity,hydraulic accumulator, pneumatic accumulator, or combinations thereof.82. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 78, wherein the electrolyteis an ion exchange membrane.
 83. The electrochemical apparatus of claim82, wherein the ion exchange membrane is a cation exchange membrane. 84.The electrochemical apparatus of claim 78, wherein the material is leaddioxide.
 85. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 84, characterized inthat the lead dioxide maintains its activity during repetitive cyclingof the power source.
 86. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 78,further comprising: a pump for delivering water to the at least oneelectrochemical cell, wherein the means for retracting is a hydraulicactuator in fluid communication with the water.
 87. The electrochemicalapparatus of claim 86, further comprising means for introducing ozoneinto a separate system.
 88. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 87,wherein the ozone comprises dissolved ozone in water, an ozone/oxygengas stream, or combinations thereof.
 89. The electrochemical apparatusof claim 78, wherein the electrolyte and one of the electrodes arestationary.
 90. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 89, wherein theelectrolyte is an ion exchange membrane.
 91. The electrochemicalapparatus of claim 90, wherein the stationary electrode is a cathode.92. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 78, wherein the at least oneelectrochemical is a plurality of electrochemical cells.
 93. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 92, wherein the plurality ofelectrochemical cells form a stack of electrochemical cells.
 94. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 78, further comprising: alead-containing catalyst disposed on one or more of the first and secondelectrodes; and a lead removal device in fluid communication with the atleast one electrochemical cell.
 95. The electrochemical apparatus ofclaim 94, wherein the lead removal device contains a material known tobind or adsorb lead ions, particulates or colloidal species.
 96. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 95, wherein the material is selectedfrom a zeolite, alumina, silica, or mixtures thereof.
 97. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 78, wherein the one or more of thefirst and second electrodes are retracted out of contact with theelectrolyte when no voltage is being applied between the first andsecond electrodes.
 98. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 78,wherein the means for retracting the one or more electrodes furthercomprises a guide member to align the electrodes.
 99. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 78, wherein the means for retractingthe electrodes is coupled to the one or more of the first and secondelectrodes by a positioning rod.
 100. The electrochemical apparatus ofclaim 99, further comprising an electrode chamber having a liquidimpermeable diaphragm sealing the chamber and moving along with thepositioning rod.
 101. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 78, furthercomprising: means for positioning the first and second electrodes incontact with the electrolyte.
 102. The electrochemical apparatus ofclaim 101, wherein the electrolyte is an ion exchange membrane, andwherein the first electrode is coupled to the means for positioning andthe first electrode has an electrocatalyst formed only on surfaces ofthe first electrode that are disposed to make contact with the ionexchange membrane.
 103. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 101,wherein the second electrode is stationary.
 104. The electrochemicalapparatus of claim 103, wherein the ion exchange membrane is securedonto the second electrode.
 105. The electrochemical apparatus of claim101, wherein the means for positioning is selected from a hydraulicactuator, a pneumatic actuator, manual mechanical means, piezo-electricmeans, electric motor means, or combinations thereof.
 106. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 101, further comprising: a pump fordelivering water to the at least one electrochemical cell, wherein themeans for positioning is a hydraulic actuator in fluid communicationwith the water.
 107. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 101, whereinthe means for positioning provides a compressive force against the ionexchange membrane generally greater than 15 psig.
 108. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 101, wherein the compressive force isbetween 5 and 10 psig.
 109. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 101,wherein the means for retracting overcomes the means for positioningwhen the power source is off.
 110. The electrochemical apparatus ofclaim 101, wherein the means for positioning overcomes the means forretracting when the power source is on.
 111. The electrochemicalapparatus of claim 101, wherein the means for positioning the electrodesfurther comprises a guide member to align the electrodes.
 112. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 101, wherein the means forpositioning the electrodes is coupled to the one or more of the firstand second electrodes by a positioning rod.
 113. The electrochemicalapparatus of claim 112, further comprising an electrode chamber having aliquid impermeable diaphragm sealing the chamber and moving along withthe positioning rod.
 114. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 112,wherein the positioning rod comprises an electronic conductorcommunicating between a voltage source and the one or more of the firstand second electrodes.
 115. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 101,further comprising a water reservoir in fluid communication with aninlet to the pump and in fluid communication with an outlet from the atleast one electrochemical cell.
 116. The electrochemical apparatus ofclaim 115, further comprising a recirculation conduit from an outlet ofthe pump back to the water reservoir.
 117. The electrochemical apparatusof claim 116, further comprising means for apportioning the amount ofwater pumped to the at least one electrochemical cell and the amount ofwater recirculated back to the water reservoir.
 118. The electrochemicalapparatus of claim 101, further comprising an ion exchange bed disposedupstream of the at least one electrochemical cell.
 119. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 118, further comprising an ozonedestruct catalyst upstream of the ion exchange bed.
 120. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 101, wherein the at least oneelectrochemical cell is a fuel cell.
 121. An electrochemical apparatus,comprising: at least one electrochemical cell having first and secondelectrodes and electrolyte disposed between the first and secondelectrodes, a power source for applying a voltage between the first andsecond electrodes, a pump for delivering water to the at least oneelectrochemical cell, and means for automatically retracting one or moreof the first and second electrodes out of contact with the electrolyte,and a hydraulic actuator in fluid communication with the water forpositioning the one or more electrodes in contact with the electrolyte.122. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 121, wherein the means forautomatically retracting is passive.
 123. The electrochemical apparatusof claim 122, wherein the passive means for automatically retracting isa stored energy device.
 124. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 123,wherein the stored energy device is selected from a spring, gravity,hydraulic accumulator, pneumatic accumulator, or combinations thereof.125. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 121, wherein the electrolyteis an ion exchange membrane.
 126. The electrochemical apparatus of claim125, wherein the ion exchange membrane is a cation exchange membrane.127. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 121, wherein the one or moreof the first and second electrodes includes material that is unstable ordeactivates in the presence of the electrolyte without applying avoltage.
 128. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 127, wherein thematerial is lead dioxide.
 129. The electrochemical apparatus of claim128, characterized in that the lead dioxide maintains its activityduring repetitive cycling of the power source.
 130. The electrochemicalapparatus of claim 121, wherein the electrolyte and one of theelectrodes are stationary.
 131. The electrochemical apparatus of claim130, wherein the electrolyte is an ion exchange membrane.
 132. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 131, wherein the stationary electrodeis a cathode.
 133. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 121, whereinthe at least one electrochemical cell is a plurality of electrochemicalcells.
 134. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 133, wherein theplurality of electrochemical cells forms a stack.
 135. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 121, wherein the one or more of thefirst and second electrodes are retracted out of contact with theelectrolyte when no voltage is being applied between the first andsecond electrodes.
 136. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 121,wherein the means for retracting the one or more electrodes furthercomprises a guide member to align the electrodes.
 137. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 121, wherein the means for retractingthe electrodes is coupled to the one or more of the first and secondelectrodes by a positioning rod.
 138. The electrochemical apparatus ofclaim 137, further comprising an electrode chamber having a liquidimpermeable diaphragm sealing the chamber and moving along with thepositioning rod.
 139. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 121,further comprising means for introducing ozone into a separate system.140. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 139, wherein the ozonecomprises dissolved ozone in water, an ozone/oxygen gas stream, orcombinations thereof.
 141. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 121,further comprising: means for positioning the first and secondelectrodes in contact with the electrolyte.
 142. The electrochemicalapparatus of claim 141, wherein the electrolyte is an ion exchangemembrane, and wherein the first electrode is coupled to the means forpositioning and the first electrode has an electrocatalyst formed onlyon surfaces of the first electrode that are disposed to make contactwith the ion exchange membrane.
 143. The electrochemical apparatus ofclaim 142, wherein the second electrode is stationary.
 144. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 143, wherein the ion exchangemembrane is secured onto the second electrode.
 145. The electrochemicalapparatus of claim 141, wherein the means for positioning is selectedfrom a hydraulic actuator, a pneumatic actuator, manual mechanicalmeans, piezo-electric means, electric motor means, or combinationsthereof.
 146. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 141, wherein themeans for positioning provides a compressive force against the ionexchange membrane generally greater than 15 psig.
 147. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 141, wherein the compressive force isbetween 5 and 100 psig.
 148. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 141,wherein the means for retracting overcomes the means for positioningwhen the power source is off.
 149. The electrochemical apparatus ofclaim 141, wherein the means for positioning overcomes the means forretracting when the power source is on.
 150. The electrochemicalapparatus of claim 141, wherein the means for positioning the electrodesfurther comprises a guide member to align the electrodes.
 151. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 141, wherein the means forpositioning the electrodes is coupled to the one or more of the firstand second electrodes by a positioning rod.
 152. The electrochemicalapparatus of claim 151, further comprising an electrode chamber having aliquid impermeable diaphragm sealing the chamber and moving along withthe positioning rod.
 153. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 151,wherein the positioning rod comprises an electronic conductorcommunicating between a voltage source and the one or more of the firstand second electrodes.
 154. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 141,further comprising a water reservoir in fluid communication with aninlet to the pump and in fluid communication with an outlet from the atleast one electrochemical cell.
 155. The electrochemical apparatus ofclaim 154, further comprising a recirculation conduit from an outlet ofthe pump back to the water reservoir.
 156. The electrochemical apparatusof claim 155, further comprising means for apportioning the amount ofwater pumped to the at least one electrochemical cell and the amount ofwater recirculated back to the water reservoir.
 157. The electrochemicalapparatus of claim 141, wherein the at least one electrochemical cell isa fuel cell.
 158. An electrochemical apparatus, comprising: a pluralityof electrochemical cells, each electrochemical cell having first andsecond electrodes and electrolyte disposed between the first and secondelectrodes, a power source for applying a voltage between the first andsecond electrodes, and means for automatically retracting one or more ofthe first and second electrodes out of contact with the electrolyte.159. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 158, wherein the means forautomatically retracting is passive.
 160. The electrochemical apparatusof claim 159, wherein the passive means for automatically retracting isa stored energy device.
 161. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 160,wherein the stored energy device is selected from a spring, gravity,hydraulic accumulator, pneumatic accumulator, or combinations thereof.162. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 158, wherein the one or moreof the first and second electrodes includes material that is unstable ordeactivates in the presence of the electrolyte without applying avoltage.
 163. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 162, wherein thematerial is lead dioxide.
 164. The electrochemical apparatus of claim163, characterized in that the lead dioxide maintains its activityduring repetitive cycling of the power source.
 165. The electrochemicalapparatus of claim 158, wherein the electrolyte and one of theelectrodes are stationary.
 166. The electrochemical apparatus of claim165, wherein the electrolyte is an ion exchange membrane.
 167. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 166, wherein the stationary electrodeis a cathode.
 168. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 166, whereinthe ion exchange membrane is a cation exchange membrane.
 169. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 158, wherein the one or more of thefirst and second electrodes are retracted out of contact with theelectrolyte when no voltage is being applied between the first andsecond electrodes.
 170. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 158,wherein the means for retracting the one or more electrodes furthercomprises a guide member to align the electrodes.
 171. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 158, wherein the means for retractingthe electrodes is coupled to the one or more of the first and secondelectrodes by a positioning rod.
 172. The electrochemical apparatus ofclaim 171, further comprising an electrode chamber having a liquidimpermeable diaphragm scaling the chamber and moving along with thepositioning rod.
 173. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 158,further comprising: means for positioning the first and secondelectrodes in contact with the electrolyte.
 174. The electrochemicalapparatus of claim 173, wherein the electrolyte is an ion exchangemembrane, and wherein the first electrode is coupled to the means forpositioning and the first electrode has an electrocatalyst formed onlyon surfaces of the first electrode that are disposed to make contactwith the ion exchange membrane.
 175. The electrochemical apparatus ofclaim 174, wherein the second electrode is stationary.
 176. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 174, wherein the ion exchangemembrane is secured onto the second electrode.
 177. The electrochemicalapparatus of claim 173, wherein the means for positioning is selectedform a hydraulic actuator, a pneumatic actuator, manual mechanicalmeans, piezo-electric means, electric motor means, or combinationsthereof.
 178. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 173, furthercomprising: a pump for delivering water to the at least oneelectrochemical cell, wherein the means for positioning is a hydraulicactuator in fluid communication with the water.
 179. The electrochemicalapparatus of claim 173, wherein the means for positioning provides acompressive force against the ion exchange membrane generally greaterthan 15 psig.
 180. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 173, whereinthe compressive force is between 5 and 100 psig.
 181. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 173, wherein the means for retractingovercomes the means for positioning when the power source is off. 182.The electrochemical apparatus of claim 173, wherein the means forpositioning overcomes the means for retracting when the power source ison.
 183. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 173, wherein the meansfor positioning the electrodes further comprises a guide member to alignthe electrodes.
 184. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 173, whereinthe means for positioning the electrodes is coupled to the one or moreof the first and second electrodes by a positioning rod.
 185. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 184, further comprising an electrodechamber having a liquid impermeable diaphragm sealing the chamber andmoving along with the positioning rod.
 186. The electrochemicalapparatus of claim 184, wherein the positioning rod comprises anelectronic conductor communicating between a voltage source and the oneor more of the first and second electrodes.
 187. The electrochemicalapparatus of claim 173, further comprising a water reservoir in fluidcommunication with an inlet to the pump and in fluid communication withan outlet from the at least one electrochemical cell.
 188. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 187, further comprising arecirculation conduit from an outlet of the pump back to the waterreservoir.
 189. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 188, furthercomprising means for apportioning the amount of water pumped to the atleast one electrochemical cell and the amount of water recirculated backto the water reservoir.
 190. The electrochemical apparatus of claim 173,wherein the at least one electrochemical cell is a fuel cell.
 191. Theelectrochemical apparatus of claim 158, wherein the plurality ofelectrochemical cells form a stack of electrochemical cells.